INTRODUCTION

  This submission is my personal one. I have been very interested in Astronomy most of my life, and I am appalled at the difficulties that we now have to face due to light pollution.

  I am a professional physicist, working in camera technology for a company that was until recently, a government research establishment.

  I am on the committee of the British Astronomical Association's Campaign for Dark Skies (CfDS), and mostly deal with technical issues.

  But the submission here is my own, as an individual. The CfDS submission was made separately by the co-ordinator. But I will briefly outline our activities.

CFDS ACTIVITIES

  For a number of years, the CfDS has been trying to educate the public and industry to the problems, as suggested by previous government policies. We are a charity, and rely on volunteers and donations.

—  We aim to minimise stray light of all forms.

—  To greatly reduce light pollution in the environment, and so save wasted energy.

—  To greatly reduce the light intrusion that blights the lives of many people; and is a hazard to drivers and to navigators by air and sea.

—  We aim to recover some of the lost beauty of dark starry skies, and the magnificence of the natural universe above.

  We do this by education of the public and influence on British Standards, the lighting industry in producing better directed light designs and fittings. We also try to persuade councils to add external lighting conditions in their planning requirements, and try to persuade the Government in the need for legislation. CfDS is NOT a campaign for dark streets, just dark skies. We are working towards "star quality lighting". Since late last year, we have been advising and supporting CPRE on their Night Blight Campaign.

MY OWN INVOLVEMENT AND CONCERNS

  In my spare time, I give invited public lectures on all aspects of astronomy and astrophysics, and also run evening classes, now all CD ROM based in PowerPoint. This includes talks on light pollution. I also manage the CfDS image library of good and bad lighting and its effects on the environment. This has over 200 images, both nationally and internationally, and information for the public, court case rulings, new laws and regulations being introduced in other countries etc. It is free to anyone who would like it.

  The theme of this submission is to consider the problems of light intrusion causing direct glare, and also upward light that causes sky glow. These affect both astronomers' and the public's view of the night sky.

  I do appreciate the need for lighting of public places for all the right reasons, but it should be confined to the area needed, and not allowed to overspill or wastefully go into the sky.

  It is not possible to eliminate upward light from reflected surfaces, but it is possible to minimise it and eliminate direct radiated horizontal and upward light. That would make a huge improvement to the night time environment, through elimination of glare and light intrusion. It would also confine skyglow to just the regions of illumination, rather than everywhere.

  Sky glow is visible even where light intrusion is not. It is from the scattered light by aerosols, mostly water vapour. The upward and sideways light is then scattered back down again. It is still not appreciated by lighting designers that the worst contributor to sky glow as seen at a distance, is from sideways and low inclination above the horizontal light components. This is affecting the vast majority of rural communities. The near and just above the horizontal components of numerous light fittings, especially road lights and floodlights, are by far the worst offenders, and this light is serving no useful purpose. They can easily be cut off at the source with proper design. It is always wasteful. This light travels through the longest atmospheric path through the highest density of aerosols, and so has the greatest probability of being scattered downwards at a distance. While light reflected, or directed straight up, soon passes above the aerosol layer, and so becomes less scattered.

  If we look over a distance on a night scene, we see a mass of light sources. This is most noticeable where there are no obstructions, or with views from a hilltop. Even views from planes of distant towns, where the inclination is well away from horizontal, show a vast number of individual light sources. All this is wasted light.

  The amount of light escaping from many thousands of luminaires is a considerable wastage in terms of energy, and is the major contribution to sky glow.

THE IMAGES IN THE ANNEXE AND ON CD

  I have included as a separate section, a set of images that are examples of what I'm talking about in this report. They stand alone, and can be looked at separately, independent of the text here. They will not be referred to specifically. On the CD-ROM they form a PowerPoint presentation. In the paper version, they are just printed as an annexe (not printed).

1.  WHAT HAS BEEN THE IMPACT OF LIGHT POLLUTION ON UK ASTRONOMY?

1.1  The night time environment

  I care for the environment and the loss of the visible Universe to most people in the UK.

  Every time I go out at night to observe a clear dark sky, I feel a sense of wonder and joy at the sheer natural beauty of it all. The true splendour of the heavens is best seen through binoculars; the sights can be truly amazing. Every time I look with binoculars or a good quality telescope at a star cluster, a nebula or galaxy, I feel overwhelmed by its sheer magnificence. From a child I was impressed by this, and so that is why astronomy is so much a part of my life. I know many others feel the same.

  Ask any member of the public if they recall in their youth the beauty of a dark starry sky. Now it is a real challenge. I live in a small town which is in a rural area. The Malvern hills are on the edge of the Severn valley, and a view from a hills at night shows this valley to be a blaze of light, every night.

  Many towns have been re-lit with brighter lighting and more of it, all remaining on all night. Previously, some were switched off after midnight. They often have illuminated sports facilities wastefully blazing much of their light horizontally and up into the sky. Now there is more light pollution than ever.

1.2  The value to society of a dark starry sky

  Few children now see the Milky Way. Even the Cubs Star-Gazer badge has been stopped, as so few children can see stars now. They grow up never having seen the Milky Way. Without a starry sky with views of the Milky Way, young people will not be drawn to scientific and technical disciplines, as they used to be. Few schools now have observatories as there is little to see. This is certainly true of my old school. Few astronomy department student observatories have a view of much more than the brightest celestial objects. So even undergraduate education suffers, and interest will be lost. With few people then having experienced a dark starry night, any value in it will also be lost too. Already we live in a society that relies on over-the-top animation and graphics on television, rather than us seeing and finding out for ourselves.

  My interest in science came looking at the night sky in my youth. It is how many people chose science to study and make it their profession. My life ever since (now aged 56) revolves about telling others about the Nature of Universe, and how it works, as so few are fully aware of it.

  The hemisphere above is the ultimate place of scientific interest and natural beauty, and yet has no protection in law. We feel that is everyone's right to see starlight, and not be blinded by wasteful and intrusive lighting. The general public lament the loss of dark starry skies, but somehow think this is inevitable. Well it isn't, and we can do something about it, and we need to get that message across.

  I think if the public realised the cost to the environment that stray light causes, they would be more appreciative of the problem and the need to do something about it.

  A one kW light left on for a year causes the emission of seven tons of Carbon dioxide from the power station. A 500 Watt outside light left on all night each night causes the emission of 1.75 tons of CO2 from the power station. A 100 W bulb left on at night causes 0.35 tons of CO2 emission per year.

  Considering the huge number of such lights throughout the UK, especially domestic ones, the contribution the global warning and fossil fuel depletion is significant.

1.3  Examples of the problem in my own location

1.3.1  Street lights

  I live in semi-rural Malvern. Unlike many towns, Malvern Hills District Council does now have a planning clause on restricting wasted light from new developments. When I moved here in the early 70s I could see dark starry skies from my back garden, and the street lights went off at midnight on time switches.

  Now I am troubled by stray domestic security lighting front and back, and sports floodlighting many evenings at the back of my house. At the front I have poor glary ill directed road lighting, and PIR dazzling security lighting opposite. The sky glow from wasted ill-aimed road lighting and town floodlighting is all over the sky.

  Now, it is only on the nights of lowest humidity, where previous rain has washed out all the aerosols, that I have any chance of seeing the Milky Way. Worcester some 12 Km away, has a permanent haze over it, which causes scatter of its light, as sky glow, up to 25 degrees elevation.

1.3.2  Housing estate low pressure sodium street lights

  At the front of the house, a few years ago, the council removed the time switches and put in all night low pressure sodium lights throughout the estate. I was not alone in complaining at the glary lights all night long outside my bedroom window. I eventually got mine changed to a full cut-off low pressure sodium luminaire, with a metal baffle in my direction. So then I could still sometimes see stars through my window and from the front garden when away from the other street lights.

  A neighbour up the road, after a lot of correspondence to the council, also managed to get full cut-off lighting installed with a metal baffle, to stop the glare into her bedroom window. The rest of the estate lights are appalling, shining everywhere; only a fraction goes on the roads.

  If this were considered as water leaking out of the water main, then everyone would be complaining pretty quickly.

1.3.3  Domestic security lights

  Domestic security lights cause glare from their light intrusion. A typical domestic PIR security light (I prefer to call it an insecurity light) flicks on and off from random motion. While trying to observe the night sky, this causes temporary dazzle and consequent contraction of the iris of the eye. The sensitive receptors in the eye take 20 minutes to regain dark adaption. In the mean time, on comes the light again, tripped by animals, or the wind, or pedestrians on the pavement, or cars on the road. This makes astronomical observation really difficult, even if there was a clear un-polluted sky. It really is a nightmare.

  In the evenings, there is light in my garden from the domestic outside lights of several of my neighbours, switching on and off at random, or some remaining on. I also get light from windows, and a conservatory next door that is used as sitting room.

  My neighbours opposite have a glary security light that comes on whenever a car enters their drive or the neighbouring one. It illuminates the front of my house to a level of several lux. And stays on for several minutes.

  The situation would be worse if I had not asked my neighbours to minimise it, pointing out that I was an astronomer. Not all of them were willing to help, not realising the nuisance that they cause.

  I have to wait until well after midnight and hide behind the shadow of bushes where possible to gain any dark adaption.

  Most so-called security lights are far too intense, causing gross glare, making any intruder invisible. They are not properly adjustable and cannot be pointed downwards, and are left on their most sensitive settings. There are some well designed lights available that point downwards, and with adjustable PIR that point downwards.

1.3.4  Sports facility floodlights

  In the last year, several local schools have installed floodlights for their sports pitches. Now I have floodlights on high ground dazzling me to the South, and the glow of the local sports facility to the North. Although full cut-off lighting was used on these facitities, the one to the south is on the highest ground around and so the cut-off is ineffective on the surrounding residential areas.

1.3.5  Building floodlights

  Malvern priory church has many floodlights, some in the churchyard and some on the building. They are about 500 W each light. They are not fitted with any control or directing baffles. Much of the light misses the church altogether and goes straight into the sky. It is by far the worst single source of light pollution. It is only too common for floodlights to be fitted at the base of buildings pointing up and over the top straight into the sky.

  Very few buildings are lit from top to bottom, but it can be done very effectively. One such very well designed building and lighting arrangement has only recently been built, and is quite local to me. It is superb example of what can be done, (I gave it an award).

  A beautiful building's appearance can be enhanced by the use of subtle lighting, highlighting selective features rather than blindly flooding the whole building with light. The use of plain bright floodlights on buildings of great architectural merit and historic significance is often a gross disservice to the architects and designers of centuries past.

1.3.6  Amenity lights

  On the new retail park outside Malvern town, all the floodlights to illuminate the shop front signs at first level have tilted over, and now shine straight into the sky, all of them. This is on an estate that is meant to come under the District Council's planning clause on lighting control.

  The lighting control measures on new developments have resulted in most of the globe lights in the town being properly capped. Without this, the light from global lights goes straight into the sky. Very little light from glow light reaches the ground.

  In general, architects continue to use globe lights for their day time appearance with no consideration as to their night time appearance, with dark shadows directly beneath them, their huge glare, and light polluting wastage.

1.3.7  Town road lights

  The town has been re-lit with high pressure sodium lighting, this is very glary. Much goes into the sky.

  A residential road was re-designated as a feeder road, from a new roundabout, as a result of a new development area on the edge of town. Local residents complained when bright LPS lights were installed by the County Council on their road on poles that were so tall that they illuminated over the roof tops into back gardens. The County Council only agreed to lower the pole heights and change the lights to FCO types, after the residents had paid for an independent survey. The rest of the road, which has a fine view of the Malvern Hills and is the boundary on a rural area, was left with the new dazzly low pressure sodium lights on their tall poles. This is in total violation of BS5489, that clearly states that all roads in open areas should be fitted with full cut-off lighting (a clause that I helped to get in place).

  As a driver, I am dazzled by lights on buildings at crazy angles, some beamed near horizontal, right at the road, installed by the council in the town centre. This was to reduce the environmental impact of using poles!

  On the high road at the top of a town the County Council installed floodlights on the top of the buildings pointing at the road, instead of using poles. These have a clear view right across the Severn Valley, and likewise can be seen at the huge distances. There was no attempt to make them full cut-off. The light can be seen right across the town and across the whole valley. Complaints about it to the council and the newspapers resulted in dis-interest.

  The County Council has continued to install low pressure sodium lights, without any lighting directional control, on the roads and junctions around the rural parts of the Malvern hills.

  Many post top lanterns had their bulbs replaced with high pressure sodium ones, so they are even more glary than before. Only a very small fraction of the light from post top lamps falls on the road; most is lost horizontally and upwards.

  The skyglow from the town is permanent. The night a view of the hills from the Herefordshire side is silhouetted by the sky glow.

  It upsets me to think that my rates money is going wastefully to light the sky. If people thought about it, I am sure many other people would agree.

1.4  The problem of increased stray lighting, Nationally

1.4.1  Satellite data

  The US Defence Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) maps show upward light levels, from ground reflected and direct radiation. The resolution is of the order several kilometres. The DMSP data is prone to saturation from the towns. Its restricted angles of view and limited resolution, means that the data requires careful interpretation. From the light intensity maps, the skyglow is well modelled, [Cinzano et al. MNRAS]. The data shows the trends of increased lighting and encroachment into formerly dark rural areas.

  Cinzano et al have observed the trends of growing light pollution as mapped by DMSP satellite for a number of years. They have produced maps that predict the horrific acceleration of light pollution up to 2025.

  Light on the ground is used as a measure of urban expansion and energy consumption, by international scientific organisations, international agencies etc., for information on the state of the Earth's ecosystems.

  Upward light surface brightness maps for 1993 and 2000 have been collected by the US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The NOAA data has been made available to Campaign for the Protection of Rural England (CPRE) who are publishing it as isophot maps for the UK and for the regions, at the launch of their Night Blight public awareness campaign in early May of this year.

  Comparing the 1993 to the 2000 data for rural areas, the level of lighting has increased dramatically for most of the formerly relatively dark rural areas. The data is truly alarming for such a short period. It needs some explanation. But at present it can only be speculation.

1.4.2  The encroachment of Skyglow into rural areas

1.4.2.1  Farm lighting

  I am informed that many farmers are now buying low pressure sodium lights from local markets that are decommissioned for replacement old street lights. They're using these to illuminate their farm yards. So while the quality of lighting on roads is improving, the old lights are being used to illuminate the countryside.

  Another trend is in converting farm barns into small business premises. This leads to a lot more flood lighting, and it is rarely controlled. Many farmers are installing floodlights in their farm buildings, and these can be seen for great distances across the countryside.

  Good and well directed luminaire designs are available, but few people install them. Like most things, good designs cost just a little more.

1.4.2.2  Road lighting and villages

  One of the biggest debates in rural villages, is whether or not to install street lighting. Where democratic discussion has been held, the average trend is for about 70% of people wishing their villages to remain unlit. It is the general influx of people formerly living in towns and cities that are most in favour of introducing street lighting, because that is what they have been used to. They feel unsafe without it.

  A case that arose in 2002 was that of Snailbeach in Shropshire, which has beautiful views of the countryside. The council decided to install road lighting, but many residents had a very strong feeling against it. The vast majority of residents at a public meeting showed their disapproval, and the council was made to reverse their decision.

  At least there was time for a Democratic discussion there. Quite often County Councils do not take into account the wishes of the local residents, and just install lights anyway. Once this is done, having spent public money, there is no way that they will remove them.

1.4.2.3  Illuminated golf courses and sports facilities

  Another growing trend is the installation of illuminated golf courses and driving ranges. Lights from these can be seen right to the horizon, causing a gross intrusion on the night time landscape. Residents realise too late for anything to be done about it.

  Sometimes a source of the intrusion is over the county boundary in which case there is no possibility of any control whatsoever.

1.4.2.4  Council policies on road lighting

  In the last few years one of the biggest encroachment into dark areas is in Wales. There have been a lot of road developments in recent years, and a lot more lighting installations. Towns and villages are now a significant source of light pollution. Many towns and villages have not used full cut-off well directed lighting. Sky glow is now quite a common sight in what was formerly a really dark skies.

  Many councils are known to choose the cheapest option with regards to street lighting. This is usually just traditional low pressure sodium omni-directional lighting. This is the worst type for visibility from a great distance, and contributions to sky glow, due to its large luminous output at and above the horizontal. This is gross wasted energy.

1.4.2.5  Light intrusion on domestic property

  Anyone can shine a light straight into a house, and there is no redress in law. The lack of legislation means that to stop light intrusion, a person may need to seek an injunction from the County Courts. This can be expensive, and has an uncertain outcome. Some offenders are in different boroughs and so the victims and their councils can do nothing. Private court cases are rare and expensive, creating a disincentive for private persons to act against individuals and businesses.

  I hear of many cases of people driven to despair, about light nuisance for neighbour's security lights. They cause gross glare and in some cases loss of sleep due to illumination of bedroom windows.

  One light is enough to kill any possibility of observing a starry sky, (as I explained earlier) even without other sources of light pollution. There are many cases of people wanting to observe the sky from their gardens now finding it impossible due to the lack of consideration of a neighbour with glary in-security lighting.

  Floodlighting from commercial and sports facilities and domestic installations of all types, has a serious potential for affecting the night-time environment for all residents in an area.

  The public should have a right to no light and a starry night (just as in daytime people have the right to light). This can only be achieved through legislation.

1.4.2.6  Lighting and crime

  There is a growing trend away from high powered lights as recognised by the Government's Security website, www.crimereduction.gov.uk. But traders and the industry continue to market high power undirected luminaires without any consideration.

  Even the police seem to believe that the more light on premises means it is less likely to be burgled. Indeed some insurance companies insist on full lighting of a building that has been formally broken into. This is a total misunderstanding. There are no truly independent studies showing increased lighting reduces crime. In fact many studies showed no correlation at all, and this was the opinion of the US Department of Justice. It also used to be the opinion of the Home Office. But after various studies sponsored by the lighting industry, and most recently the report of Prof. Farrington, they have changed their minds. This particular report is being challenged statistically.

  Even MicroMark, the makers of many domestic outside lighting fittings, say that all night lighting in fact invites crime and does not deter it. The best deterrent is internal lighting, not external lighting.

  There is a general feeling of well-being and confidence when a Council has been seen to invest in better quality lighting in an area. I may be true in city centres, but not necessarily elsewhere. It is a common feeling of safety, but it is a feeling, rather than an actuality.

  Most burglaries are actually done in the day, and the rest often directly under lights. This is also true of attacks upon the person. The offender needs to see what they are doing. Many break-ins into cars are done directly under street lights, as is most wall graffiti. To carry the torch on such an occasion would be an encumbrance.

  Many premises are bathed in light all night. This is often true of school buildings.

  There is a need to really clear up these misunderstandings. It cannot be done without government help. Even the police in their advice, seem to be ignoring the government security advice against bright and continuous lighting.

1.4.2.7  Flood lighting as a hazard to drivers

  Environmental Health officers can act in cases where the lighting is a danger or health risk, but in most cases they prefer not to act. In Oxfordshire in 2002 a pedestrian was killed by a driver as he could not be seen for the glare from a pub car park floodlight.

  Yet pub and shop owned car parks are often lit by a few near horizontally pointing floodlights, beaming straight into driver's eyes causing direct glare and causing deep shadows rendering everything near invisible. To see the direct glare of a bulb is self defeating, it closes down the iris so nothing else can be seen. Who is to be held responsible ? If the District Council has no light planning clause it has no control, as it is not on public property and not on the road, neither to environmental health officers or the police. It all adds to light intrusion, pollution and skyglow, as I have explained.

1.4.2.8  Docks, Waterways and Navigation

  There is considerable increase in difficulty for navigators approaching harbours. Quite often they can't even see where the buoys are, due to bright lights from the roads and buildings close to the harbour. There is a trend to make sea fronts highly decorative with decorative lighting. This is rarely blacked out in the direction of the sea. The BS clause on lighting near railways, navigable waterways and near aerodromes, is not mandatory.

  As an example of gross light pollution, Poole docks have bright lights on tall poles around the area of the Ferry terminal. Clearly we need good illumination at the docks and at the car ferry. But these are visible inland in rural areas from 25 Km away, and also visible half way across the channel. No attempt has been made at controlling the beams or using baffles or barn door shutters. The common answer to criticism of lighting installations is that "it was designed by experts". But so was the Titanic !

1.4.2.9  Creature behaviour and extinction

  In America, it is common practise to illuminate transmitter towers. During the migration season, it has been observed that they attract migrating birds that then become mis-orientated. On one occasion 10,000 birds were killed in one night, through collision or exhaustion. It is the same experience with illuminated skyscrapers. The Empire State Building is not illuminated in the migration season, and nightly bird watches are carried out. Previously, they experienced 1,000 strikes a night at times.

  Studies of the effect of light houses were carried out in the UK many years ago, with similar findings. And yet many buildings eg Canary Wharf Tower, are illuminated the whole time.

  Glow worms are becoming rarer in vicinity of roads that have been newly lit. There is just too much competition.

  A row of global lights (white light) in a park will cause the mass extinction of all light-attracting flying insects, within a 300 m radius in the course of three nights. Globe lights next to a riverbank will soon exterminate all the flying insect species. They are attracted by the ultraviolet and blue content in the light. They do not see low pressure sodium lighting. This information is as a result of recent studies.

1.5  In summary

  These last few paragraphs may seemed to have strayed from the point about astronomy. But it just shows you the growing trends, and the lack of consideration and thought that goes into installing light fittings generally by the individual and organisations. It adds to the night time mess that we now have. In general, the public can no longer see the stars due to gross direct light intrusion form all these sources described above, and the sky glow that results from it adding an ambient background, rendering the Milky Way invisible.

  I have mathematically modelled the relationship between background levels, magnitudes of skyglow, and star visibility counts on clear nights, but a summary will suffice here. As I said, it is very dependent on local atmospheric aerosol conditions.

  In city centres the public can see only a few stars, at most 100. In suburban areas, it may be a few hundred on the clearest of nights. In rural areas up to 40 Km on the clearest of nights, maybe 1,000, and the Milky Way on occasion. In a few dark hollows in rural areas and in remote areas away from local lights, the full glory of the Milky Way and up to 3,000 stars can be seen to the unaided eye. But this is lost to most of us.

  Amateur astronomers struggle in many areas with binoculars or telescopes to see even to the list of nebulae clusters and galaxies that Charles Messier listed as things to avoided by comet hunters. These are the must-see list for all astronomers. Messier saw them from his observatory in the middle of Paris in the 1780s-1800s. Many of the objects discovered by William Herschel from his back garden in Bath in a similar period, are beyond the reach of many now. Certainly not from Bath, his garden now has a car park globe light at the end of it.

  A few are lucky enough to be well located and have electronic cameras that are able to see more, but the glory of the heavens is lost to most.

  In the period from 1997 to 2000, satellite data has shown the number of dark spots as defined above has diminished to a small fraction of what it was. This is truly alarming. But it may not too late to recover it.

2.  ARE CURRENT PLANNING GUIDELINES STRONG ENOUGH TO PROTECT AGAINST LIGHT POLLUTION?

2.0  Summary of uncontrolled lighting

  I refer you to all that I have mentioned on section 1.4—

  2.0.1  Farm lighting. Lack of control on misuse of old street lighting, horizontally mounted flood lighting around farm buildings seen for great distances etc.

  2.0.2  Road lighting and villages. Residents wishes to not have street lights in formerly dark villages.

  2.0.3  Illuminated golf courses and sports facilities. Installation of illuminated golf courses and driving ranges, causing a gross intrusion on the night time landscape. Residents realise too late for anything to be done about it.

  2.0.4  Council policies on road lighting. Councils are known to choose the cheapest option with regards to street lighting. This is usually just traditional low pressure sodium omni-directional lighting. This is the worst type for visibility from a great distance, and contributions to sky glow.

  2.0.5  Light intrusion on domestic property. Anyone can shine a light straight into a house, and there is no redress in law. The lack of legislation means that to stop light intrusion, a person may need to seek an injunction from the County Courts. This can be expensive, and has an uncertain outcome. People are driven to despair, about light nuisance for neighbour's security lights. Floodlighting from commercial and sports facilities and domestic installations of all types, has a serious potential for affecting the night-time environment for all residents in an area.

  2.0.6  Lighting and crime. A growing trend away from high powered lights is recognised by the Government's Security website, www.crimereduction.gov.uk. But traders and the industry continue to market high power undirected luminaires without any consideration.

  2.0.7  Flood lighting as a hazard to drivers. There have been deaths from glare. Pub and shop owned car parks are often lit by a few near horizontally pointing floodlights, beaming straight into driver's eyes causing direct glare and causing deep shadows rendering everything near invisible. Who is to be held responsible ? If the District Council has no light planning clause it has no control, as it is not on public property and not on the road, neither to environmental health officers or the police.

  2.0.8  Docks, Waterways and Navigation. There is considerable increase in difficulty for navigators approaching harbours. Quite often they can't even see where the buoys are, due to bright lights from the roads and buildings. Deaths have resulted but there is no control. Also apples to aerodromes and railway lines,

  2.0.9  Creature behaviour and extinction. Collision or exhaustion of birds with illuminated buildings. A row of global lights (white light) in a park will cause the mass extinction of all light-attracting flying insects, within a 300 m radius in the course of three nights.

  Here I will put some of them in a planning context, and also highlight some cases a specific examples.

2.1  Local planning clauses

  Just a few District councils have planning clauses that include a requirement to show lighting associated with new development schemes on their plans, and to meet strict guidelines for planning approval.

  Malvern Council, has such a clause, requiring external lighting schemes for new developments to meet strict criteria of minimal intrusion. But of course it is only effective in cases that require council planning permission. It still allows sports lighting to be intrusive to the level of one lux on houses.

  Worcestershire ambulance service moved into a renovated building in the green belt of Worcester. It is their headquarters. They erected tall poles with glary globe lights in the car park and floodlit the building. It is a semi-rural open site. They should have submitted the plans for council approval, but did not. Malvern Hills District Council then required the floodlights to be permanently switched off, and the car park lights removed, and new plans submitted for approval.

  But in general, current provisions for controlling light pollution are insufficient. Most councils do not have any such requirement. Even those that do, have no control over existing schemes, such as industrial or commercial organisations, or in any case of private domestic lighting.

  2.2  Fittings to buildings

  Regulations apply to daytime appearance of fittings, but not on the night time effect on the environment!

  2.3  Light intrusion and nuisance from security and floodlighting

  Some District Councils are now addressing the problem of light pollution, but they are few.

  Private nuisance provisions for light allow a person to seek an injunction from their neighbour through County Courts. While this is good, it can be expensive and has an uncertain outcome. Some offenders are in different boroughs than the victims and their councils can do nothing. Private court cases are rare and expensive, creating a disincentive for private persons to act against individuals and businesses.

  I hear of very many cases of people driven to despair, about light nuisance from neighbours' in-security lights. They cause gross glare and in some cases loss of sleep due to illumination of bedroom windows. Someone can shine a light straight at your house and there is no redress in law. One light is enough to prevent any possibility of observing a starry sky, (as I explained earlier) even without other sources of light pollution.

  Floodlighting of all types has a serious potential for affecting the night time environment for all residents in an area. The public should have a right to no light (just as in daytime people have the right to light). This can only be achieved through legislation.

  The informed opinion against the use of high powered lights is recognised by the Government's Security website, www.crimereduction.gov.uk. But traders and the industry continue to market high power undirected luminaires without any consideration.

  Environmental Health officers can act in cases where the lighting is a danger or health risk, but in most cases they prefer not to act.

2.4  The ILE Guides

  The Institute of Lighting Engineers has introduced a zone system of lighting levels, from the lowest levels in national parks, to the highest levels in city centres. This includes maximum lux levels at bedroom window heights, and also good instructions on minimising glare and the use of well directed and positioned lighting.

  The guides on light spillage levels are considered by some of us to still be rather high, but they are useful guide that is generally adopted by councils. Indeed many councils have incorporated the advice into their local planning advisory leaflets.

  But they are only guides, and there is no required adherence to them companies or individuals.

2.5  Skybeams

  Skybeams are an increasing trend. Few controls exist. The law says the sky shall not be used for advertising, but what is advertising can lead to legal disputes and court cases. The offender often gets round the whole issue by claiming the lights are temporary structures, as this is not covered by planning requirements. This has often happened. I can quote several cases.

2.6  The need for regulation

  Other countries have light legislation, the forerunner being the Czech Republic.

  A number of environment organisations in common with CfDS are in support of light becoming a statutory nuisance because:

—  The option of leaving such matters to local groups would leave a haphazard situation between voluntary and enforced regulations and would lead to a lack of any co-ordination. Light intrusion is not a local matter. People affected can be very many Kilometres from the source, as was shown above.

—  There is no action individuals can take from the damaging affects of schemes that did get approved and subsequently proved a problem. Nor is there any provision against home improvement type lighting that dos not require any panning approval.

—  A requirement based on no direct light to be visible beyond the property boundary to be illuminated would be all embracing.

2.7  Some particularly bad examples

  Here are four cases illustrating how inadequate the present situation is, and the extraordinary lengths that people to have to go to get anywhere, if at all.

  2.7.1  Light intrusion of a whole neighbourhood from sports facility lighting and neighbouring but different jurisdiction. No action is possible.

  Case at Holdenhurst, near Bournemouth, in 2002 local residents despaired at the intrusive light from a new golf driving range. But since the source was in the adjoining borough, their council could do nothing.

  2.7.2  Gross local light intrusion

  Current only recourse is to take private action through the courts. Private court cases are rare, due to the uncertain outcome and the high cost. Most people would not have taken the matter so far, especially with the Councils attitude in this case.

  In Brighton County Court, Mr D Bonwick (complainant) brought a case of light trespass against Brighton and Hove council (defendant): Brighton County Court Claim number BN906721.The council denied that the light shone on the property. The judge made a site visit, and ordered that "the defendant cease the nuisance caused..", awarded Mr Bonwick damages and costs of several hundred pounds.

  2.7.3  Skybeams using the sky for advertising and spoiling the dark sky environment

  Sometimes skybeams are allowed by councils, and sometimes not; cases have to be resolved through legal action.

  The case of the Guildford public enquiry after the council objected to two seven Kw sky-beams on top of a local night-club. The Council considered it an advertisement, required consent, and refused the application. This was appealed by the Council in the High Court. The Secretary of State overturned that for a rehearing. Eventually at the council's insistence, it went to public inquiry, held in December 1999. HM Planning Inspector Wood decided that the lights could be seen from a long distance, they were a directional sign for Guildford and the premises, and so an advertisement, and must be turned off.

  Sky beams have become an increasing problem. Since the above case a number of proposals have come to light. Some have been successfully refused, but this is not always the case.

  2.7.4  Church floodlighting in rural villages spoiling the dark sky environment without consultation, and against the wishes of the community

  A resident of Creaton, Northants, sent a questionnaire to all residents of his village on the subject of the proposed floodlighting of their local church, and presented the data to the church authorities. 76% were not aware of the planned installation, 83% were not in favour of the proposed scheme. Of the 59 respondents, 48 (81%) would prefer to have floodlights only on special occasions. The outcome was that the proposed scheme has been reduced to occasional lighting only (church festivals) with an 11 pm switch-off.

  This is a drop in the ocean compared with the number of floodlighting schemes that are approved without the public knowing anything about them, that then cause serious nuisance.

  In Dartmoor, one of the few remaining dark parts of the country, a school child was asked, "you must often see a starry sky". He replied, "not now the vicar turns the lights on the parish church each night". There are very many other cases like this.

  2.7.5  The impact on the environment and community

  I have already discussed the lack of control lighting on farm buildings and the use of low pressure sodium former street lights, and high intensity floodlighting.

  Once the design of building or scheme has been approved, there is no control over what lights are fitted at a later stage.

  Few councils have any planning restrictions on external lighting, and those that do cannot take any action after the scheme has been approved. It is usually subsequently that the full impact of intrusion and nuisance on the local community is realised.

2.8  A ray of hope

  The Campaign for Dark Skies has persuaded B&Q to apply a voluntary code on promoting fully cut-off downwards pointing lower intensity security fittings, and phasing out the worst high power ones, that cannot be adjusted to a horizontal full cut-off position.

  Some other DIY chains are considering similar practice, but it is likely not to be universal and independent retailers will continue to do what they like. Again, legislation is needed.

3.  ARE PLANNING GUIDELINES BEING APPLIED AND ENFORCED EFFECTIVELY?

  I feel I have already stated the inadequacy of the situation in the previous section, but I have a few comments here.

3.1  Planning Policy Guides

  There are only three PPGs that mention lighting at all. These are inadequate to cover the large range of intrusion and pollution situations that I have described in the previous sections.

  The planning guides are more concerned with the external daytime appearance, than the gross effects that lighting has on the night-time environment.

3.2  EHOs

  Environmental Health officers can act in cases where the lighting is a danger or health risk, but in most cases they prefer not to act. In fact the cases may not be even recorded. Planning guidelines are inadequate to cover the needs of the individual to protect their right to see the stars, without glare from a neighbour's security lights or stray light from floodlit sports or commercial facilities, and without the wasteful and unnecessary pollution of the sky with skyglow.

  There is no follow up and little enforcement—see cases in last section as illustrations of this.

3.3  Council clauses on lighting control

  Few councils have any regulatory requirements on external lighting. A few have advisory guidelines but they are not requirements.

  Just a few councils do have a planning clause that requires lighting to be shown for new developments and it has to meet strict constraints on the amount of stray light and intrusion.

3.4  The impact on the environment and community

  It may not be obvious as to the amount of light intrusion caused, from just looking at the plans. The local residents find out when the lighting scheme is then switched on and causes great distress. Then there is no redress and nothing can be done.

  There is no follow up after council approval of lighting plans, to see if the resultant scheme is causing problem to local residents or not. Any complaint received is then greeted with . . . nothing we can do as the scheme was approved.

  Furthermore, there is no control over what lights are fitted at a later stage.

3.5  District and County councils

  I have heard of cases where the local council has accepted the generous offer of a company to make its mark by providing a new lighting scheme. The resultant scheme caused gross light intrusion on properties and had a marked effect on the night-time landscape. In one case the residents were outraged, and the local council was reluctant to do anything. An appeal was made to the District Council, and it was then found that the local council had not sought planning approval from them.

3.6  Boundaries of jurisdiction

  As was mentioned in the special cases section, light intrusion from some new facility can be excessive well over the boundary of jurisdiction of the council concerned. In such cases there is no redress possible by the residents who are affected in the adjacent area.

3.7  In general

  In general planning regulations concerning lighting are completely inadequate. In a few cases where there are some, there is no follow-up and no redress if mistakes have been made.

4.  IS LIGHT MEASURABLE IN SUCH A WAY AS TO MAKE LEGALLY ENFORCEABLE REGULATORY CONTROLS FEASIBLE?

4.1  Light intrusion and skyglow as separate concerns for monitoring

  If I were asked how can anyone monitor with measurements, I would say . . . of light intrusion or sky glow? The two are at different in nature and effect and should be treated differently concerning measurement.

  In both cases it is directly measurable with suitable equipment. Currently standard lux meters are inadequate as they lack the sensitivity, but for light intrusion a simple modification will suffice.

  For measuring skyglow, it is possible to use the eye as the sensor, in a simple and cheap nulling reference device, or to use a digital camera or modified Web camera, or a purpose built chopping disc photometer from standard inexpensive components.

4.2  Light intrusion

  Light intrusion is troublesome to observation of the sky at anything from 50 millilux upwards. It causes iris contraction, and then saturation of the rod receptors and loss of dark adaptation. Dark adaption takes 20 minutes to recover.

  The sources are individual luminaires seen in direct view. The output is in lumens per steradian, but is received at the point of observation as a luminous flux luminous power per area, lux, but from the direction of the light, not elsewhere.

  As a guide, Moonlight from full moon is about 250 millilux. . . 0.25 lux. This is a bit below the range of many lux meters.

  To increase the sensitivity of a lux meter to direct light for individual sources, all one needs to do is place the meter at the focus of a large lens or mirror. Basically it then becomes a small telescope and is directional. It is its aperture that matters. The increase in sensitivity is proportional to the increase in the area of the lens or mirror to that of the sensor.

  The area-solid angle product of detector system is constant. So if we increase the light gathering area as described, then we reduce the solid angle field of view from that of the original sensor to that in the same ratio. An optics aperture size increase of ten to one for a 90 degree field of view lux meter sensor will produce an effective 100 fold increase in sensitivity, with field of view of nine degrees.

4.3  Skyglow

  Light pollution on the form of skyglow as a flux on the ground from all the sky, is at the level of 5—100 millilux, well below the level of light meters. Starlight is just a few millilux, from all the stars in the sky.

  It is often expressed as stellar magnitudes per square second of arc (17 to 20). For example Birmingham, skyglow at magnitude 17 per square arcsecond corresponds to the equivalent of one very bight star (magnitude-one ) for every square degree of sky (60 millilux).

4.3.1  Star counts are not a reliable method

  Using star counts is not reliable. Even without any light pollution, thin cloud or some local mist diminishes and scatters the starlight and so drastically reduces the star counts. Add some stray light pollution and that reflects and scatters from the same clouds or mist and reduces the contrast further. So it is a double whammy. It is also a steep function of azimuth.

  Seeing stars against skyglow is not just a matter of contrast, but also of eye sensitivity to the overall level of starlight after attenuation through the aerosol scatterers. Really clear air will show no sky-glow even with lots of normally polluting sources around. A rarity in the UK with water dew points reached most winter nights, and pollen and dust haze in the summer.

4.3.2  Measurements from space, modelling and the trend of skyglow.

  I have already explained that Satellite observations are of direct and reflected ground lights, and not of skyglow. The monitoring over a few years has shown clear and alarming trends of greatly reduced areas of darkness. Skyglow can be modelled from the data and predictions made. Satellite observations do not have the resolution to cover individual areas smaller than whole towns. But the space shuttle and international space station does have that resolution, in the few cases of such images, (overpasses of specific locations in clear skies are rare).

  Skyglow can be modelled from estimates of the numbers and types of road lights per square kilometre and adding in upward security and floodlighting. All that is not absorbed on the ground ends up in the sky one way or another, but it is the sideways components that are the worst offenders as they scatter back down the most.

  Currently, street lighting is the largest component, but as the Highways agency continues its policy of installing well directed full cut-off lights and Councils are in a few places, the trend will be a reduction in skyglow from road lights, and increase from sports and industrial floodlights.

4.3.3  Photometry of the cloud base as a measure of light pollution from skyglow

  Measurement from the ground can be done, but for reasons already explained, it is dependent on atmospheric conditions. But a relatively weather independent measure of skyglow is to use the cloud base. The clouds are a good scatterer of the upward light, and are nearly as bright as the ground. All ground reflected and upward directed light is scattered back down except for the 10% or so that is transmitted. A cloudy moonlit sky is about 10% moonlight level, or by day a cloudy sky is about 10 per cent of sunlight. So we get an error of about 10%, pretty good. Clouds are more often there and more reliable than semi clear or misty skies.

4.3.4  Instruments for skygklow measurement

  Precision photometers are expensive. But there are simple alternatives.

  4.3.4.1  A well tried method is the disc nulling photometer. It is easy to build and is well described in articles as in Sky and Telescope. An illuminated disc in a telescope where the LED illuminator current is adjusted to the level that the eye sees zero contrast between disc and light polluted sky. This is very simple to build. It is very sensitive as it uses the eye as the sensor, and is very cheap to build.

  The LED current controlling potentiometer knob can be calibrated. All one does is adjust the current until the disc is the same brightness as the background.

  To make such instruments, I think one could just make modifications to existing commercial illuminated red cross finders commonly used for telescopes. The semi-reflecting mirror would be replaced by a small white disc, the device run from a stabilised power source, and an accurate calibrated lux scale installed with improved current adjustment.

  4.3.4.2  Digital cameras now have extended exposure times up to 15 seconds in some cases. More than enough to record skyglow. This used not to be so.

  4.3.4.3  Low light TV cameras can be modified for long integration, as can some CCD based Webcams. There is a whole news group dedicated to just that, QCUIAG. the QuickCam and Unconventional Imaging Astronomy Group http://www.qcuiag.co.uk/

  4.3.4.4  It is easy to build a silicon diode-based photometer. There is a Radio Spares tech note on radiometry and it also gives all the circuits. By using a low noise amplifier as described in the RS note, the system noise will be low enough to give measurable photometric readings of skyglow. It would need a small chopper rotating blade disc to modulate the light signal. The AC signal is synchronously rectified and read out. This avoids DC drift and acts as a calibration, and allows accumulation of signal over a defined integration time, say 30 seconds for typical skyglow, according to my estimates.

  4.3.4.5  QCUIAG members have demonstrated strobing with the AC 100Hz flicker of street lights. This can be used to turn off electronic cameras to the peaks of mains-based skyglow where the lights are all on the same phase. But unfortunately light are not on the same phase and are likely to be distributed on all three phases.

5.  ARE FURTHER CONTROLS ON THE DESIGN OF LIGHTING NECESSARY?

5.1  Domestic security lights

  With intrusion from domestic security lighting, very many people are in a state of despair. Formerly dark gardens are now flooded by neighbours security lights. Some switch at random, triggered by domestic animals and even the wind moving from branches. Some stay on all night regardless. They are inevitably high intensity and are often tilted almost horizontal, causing dazzle to anyone trying to observe dark sky. The pupil once exposed, closes down and will recover for another 20 minutes preventing any view of stars.

  I frequently hear of cases where astronomers now are unable to see anything. They have asked the owners of the lights if they could adjust them down and turn them off when not needed. The response varies from total disregard and unwillingness, to at most some nominal adjustment which makes little difference.

  CfDS persuaded B&Q to adopt a policy of better quality security lighting sold in their shops. Other companies are considering it but the impact of this is small.

  The normal power of the lights (300-500W) is far too high, wasting energy and creating dark shadows for thieves to hide in. They annoy neighbours because they tend to be set off easily. Also, especially in rural areas, they are responsible for the light pollution that ruins the night sky. Such lights are rarely if impossible to mount to have horizontal cut-off, and cause glare and light pollution over large distances. Floodlighting design is also varies from good to very bad. Bad designed lighting can only be stopped though legislation.

  The argument that domestic security lights are imported from the Far East and so beyond control, is not really true. Micromark are the biggest manufacturer of domestic security and external light fittings. They design their units in the UK and get them made in the Far East. They have total control of their products, and they include some of the worst designs around. This could surely be brought under some environmental standard.

  No headway can be made until there is legislation. It can be done within the UK and also through import control.

5.2  Councils and road lights

  Many councils will not adopt full cut-off direction road lights unless forced to do so. They will stick to the cheapest option of low pressure sodium lighting without shields unless forced to change.

  In the last few years one of the biggest encroachment into dark areas is in Wales. There have been a lot of road developments in recent years and lighting installations. A lot of the towns and villages are now a significant source of light pollution. They have not used full cut-off well directed lighting. Sky glow is now quite a common sight in what were formerly really dark skies. Some Councils always go for the cheapest option with regards to street lighting, which is usually just traditional low pressure sodium omni-directional lighting. Some have stated that they won't put in high quality well directed lighting unless they are legally required to do so.

5.3  The options

  I restate recent findings. The NOAA / CPRE isophot maps for the UK from 1993 to 2000 show a gross expansion of upward light, well into the darkest category. The data is truly alarming for such a short period.

  Action needs to be taken to stop this trend, and eventually reverse it.

  My response to DEFRA's recent public discussion on introduction of a light intrusion law was this:

(i)  The option of leaving such matters to local groups would leave a haphazard situation between voluntary and enforced regulations. And would lead to a lack of any co-ordination. Light intrusion is not a local matter. People affected can be very many Kilometres from the source. In the few cases of councils having brought new external lighting schemes under planning regulations, there is no action individuals can take from damaging affects of schemes that did get approved and subsequently proved a problem. Nor is there any provision against home improvement type lighting that does not require any planning approval.

(ii)  We need light nuisance legislation! Considering this option, we appreciate the concern that this would lead to a policing or enforcing requirements based on technical measurement of light fluxes and upward light ratios etc. A requirement based on no direct light to be visible beyond the property boundary to be illuminated would be all embracing.

  This could be brought in with a few years' allowance for changes to be made.

  Local enabling amendments, as done for advertising, would be very much a second best.

  If light pollution were thought of like water leakage, it would be considered as a gross wastage and action would be take, Over 30% of all light from poorly designed and fitted external lighting goes straight to the sky, much goes over boundaries to cause gross nuisance.

  The gross air pollution before the 1960s from chimney and exhaust emissions used to produce smog. This was only cleaned up though national legislation. It would never have succeeded through local legislation.

5.4  National and regional legislation in other countries

  A number of regions within countries and one entire country have now introduced tight regulatory controls of light intrusion. Without such legislation the current problems will only get worse.

  The Czech Republic has recently introduced the Protection of the Atmosphere Act. This defines light pollution as "every form of artificial light which is dispersed outside the areas it is dedicated to, particularly if directed above the level of the horizon". Citizens are obliged to "take measures to prevent the occurrence of light pollution in the air" or face fines. Authorities are required to use fully shielded lights to control the spread of light, and use flat rather than curved glass to prevent light dispersing upwards and sideways. Advertising billboards will have to be lit from above, with their lights pointing downwards. "Fully shielded light fixtures not only help preserve the beauty of the starry sky, but they also illuminate more efficiently and allow people to see better at night." David Crawford (International Dark Skies Association, IDA)

  In Italy the Lombardy Parliament has passed a light pollution bill makes it illegal to install light fixtures emitting a light directly above the horizontal, and near amateur and professional observatories all the lighting should be replaced within four years.

  Catalonia has now a Law on Environmental Planning of Outdoor Lighting for the Protection of Night Darkness, preventing excess light pollution from escaping into the sky.

  Many European astronomical bodies are preparing an approach to the European parliament stating that this world-wide problem needs addressing as part of a much needed enforcement of energy saving policies already agreed at the international level.

  In September 2002, I attended the 2nd European Symposium on the Protection of the Night Sky which took place in Lucerne, Switzerland. All attendees signed a statement, unanimously requesting all European governments and the EU to take immediate action to control light pollution. This should include educational campaigns, new legislation and research.

5.5  Accompanying images.

  Not printed.

CONCLUSION

  It is not too late to stem the tide of a sea of light, and to recover the lost beauty to many, of a true starry night. Let us keep the streets lit, but just that and save energy and money. We can and should protect the hemisphere above of overwhelming natural beauty and special scientific interest.

24 April 2003